J Endocrinol Metab

Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, ISSN 1923-2861 print, 1923-287X online, Open Access

Article copyright, the authors; Journal compilation copyright, J Endocrinol Metab and Elmer Press Inc

Journal website https://www.jofem.org

Original Article

Volume 12, Number 6, December 2022, pages 178-187

Maternal and Childhood Diet and Human Type 1 Diabetes Risk

**Table 1.** Summary of Results for Diet During Pregnancy in Mothers of Type 1 Diabetes Subjects and Mothers of Controls
Intake	Mothers of controls	Mothers of type 1 diabetes subjects	P value
Results are in median weekly intake and interquartile range. ^aSoft drinks, fruit juices, sweetened tea/coffee. ^bSignificant results.
Milk	3.5 (0 - 17.5)	7.0 (0 - 17.5)	0.222
Sweet beverages^a	8.1 (1.5 - 3.1)	7.0 (1.5 - 27.1)	0.151
Alcohol	0 (0 - 0)	0 (0 - 0)	0.446
Coffee	7.0 (0 - 17.5)	1.0 (0 - 17.5)	0.404
Tea	7.0 (0 - 17.5)	17.5 (0 - 17.5)	0.404
Fresh fruit	14 (14 - 21)	14 (14 - 21)	0.823
Dried fruit	0 (0 - 1.0)	0 (0 - 0.625)	0.859
Vegetables	7 (3.5 - 14.0)	7.0 (3.5 - 14.0)	0.063
Potatoes	3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)	3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)	0.544
Fried potatoes	1.5 (0.5 - 2.63)	1.0 (0 - 1.75)	0.322
Uncooked cereal	3.5 (0 - 5.5)	3.5 (0.44 - 7.0)	0.193
Rice and pasta	2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)	2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)	0.859
Bread	7.0 (7.0 - 14)	7.0 (7.0 - 14.0)	0.115
Chicken	2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)	2.0 (2.0 - 2.0)	0.714
Fish	1.0 (0.25 - 1.0)	1.0 (0.25 - 1.0)	0.535
Beef and pork	2.0 (1.0 - 3.0)	2.0 (1.0 - 3.0)	0.554
Savoury cakes and pies	0.25 (0.06 - 1.0)	0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)	0.022^b
Pizza	0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)	0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)	0.570
Biscuits	7.0 (2.0 - 7.0)	3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)	0.263
Packaged snacks	0.44 (0 - 2.0)	0.25 (0.09 - 2.0)	0.902
Cakes	2.0 (0.625 - 3.5)	1.0 (0.625 - 3.5)	0.500
Candy	0 (0 - 1.0)	0 (0 - 0.44)	0.821
Chocolate	3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)	2.75 (1.0 - 7.0)	0.673
Ice-cream	0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)	1.0 (0.44 - 3.5)	0.042^b

Table 1. Summary of Results for Diet During Pregnancy in Mothers of Type 1 Diabetes Subjects and Mothers of Controls

Intake

Mothers of controls

Mothers of type 1 diabetes subjects

P value

Results are in median weekly intake and interquartile range. ^aSoft drinks, fruit juices, sweetened tea/coffee. ^bSignificant results.

Milk

3.5 (0 - 17.5)

7.0 (0 - 17.5)

0.222

Sweet beverages^a

8.1 (1.5 - 3.1)

7.0 (1.5 - 27.1)

0.151

Alcohol

0 (0 - 0)

0.446

Coffee

7.0 (0 - 17.5)

1.0 (0 - 17.5)

0.404

Tea

7.0 (0 - 17.5)

17.5 (0 - 17.5)

0.404

Fresh fruit

14 (14 - 21)

0.823

Dried fruit

0 (0 - 1.0)

0 (0 - 0.625)

0.859

Vegetables

7 (3.5 - 14.0)

7.0 (3.5 - 14.0)

0.063

Potatoes

3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)

0.544

Fried potatoes

1.5 (0.5 - 2.63)

1.0 (0 - 1.75)

0.322

Uncooked cereal

3.5 (0 - 5.5)

3.5 (0.44 - 7.0)

0.193

Rice and pasta

2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)

0.859

Bread

7.0 (7.0 - 14)

7.0 (7.0 - 14.0)

0.115

Chicken

2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)

2.0 (2.0 - 2.0)

0.714

Fish

1.0 (0.25 - 1.0)

0.535

Beef and pork

2.0 (1.0 - 3.0)

0.554

Savoury cakes and pies

0.25 (0.06 - 1.0)

0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)

0.022^b

Pizza

0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)

0.570

Biscuits

7.0 (2.0 - 7.0)

3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)

0.263

Packaged snacks

0.44 (0 - 2.0)

0.25 (0.09 - 2.0)

0.902

Cakes

2.0 (0.625 - 3.5)

1.0 (0.625 - 3.5)

0.500

Candy

0 (0 - 1.0)

0 (0 - 0.44)

0.821

Chocolate

3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)

2.75 (1.0 - 7.0)

0.673

Ice-cream

0.625 (0.25 - 1.0)

1.0 (0.44 - 3.5)

0.042^b

**Table 2.** Results of Multiple Logistic Regression Analysis of Maternal Diet Components as Predictors of Type 1 Diabetes
	β	SE	P value	Odds ratio
SE: standard error of the mean.
Vegetables	0.026	0.022	0.227	1.026
Ice-cream	0.176	0.097	0.070	1.192
Savoury cakes and pies	0.473	0.302	0.117	1.605

Table 2. Results of Multiple Logistic Regression Analysis of Maternal Diet Components as Predictors of Type 1 Diabetes

P value

Odds ratio

SE: standard error of the mean.

Vegetables

0.026

0.022

0.227

1.026

Ice-cream

0.176

0.097

0.070

1.192

Savoury cakes and pies

0.473

0.302

0.117

1.605

**Table 3.** Summary of Results for Diet of the Child up to the Date of Diagnosis of Type 1 Diabetes
Intake	Controls	Type 1 diabetes subjects	P value
Results are in median weekly intake and interquartile range. ^aSoft drinks, fruit juices, sweet tea/ice-tea.^bSignificant results.
Milk	7 (6.375 - 17.5)	17.5 (7.0 - 17.5)	0.13
Sweet beverages^a	3.25 (1.53 - 13.5)	5.25 (1.47 - 17.0)	0.45
Tea	0 (0 - 1.5)	0 (0 - 0.63)	0.98
Fresh fruit	7 (3.5 - 14)	14 (7 - 14)	0.12
Dried fruit	0 (0 - 0)	0 (0 - 0)	0.15
Vegetables	3.5 (1.35 - 7)	3.5 (0.9 - 14)	0.545
Potatoes	3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)	3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)	0.40
Fried potatoes	1.75 (0.88 - 2.0)	1.8 (0.9 - 1.8)	0.29
Uncooked cereal	7.0 (3.5 - 7.0)	7.0 (3.5 - 7.0)	0.65
Rice and pasta	2.75 (2.0 - 3.5)	2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)	1.00
Bread	7.0 (7.0 - 7.0)	7.0 (7.0 - 14.0)	0.01^b
Chicken	3.5 (2.0 - 3.5)	2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)	0.002^b
Fried chicken	1.0 (0 - 1.8)	1.0 (0 - 1.13)	0.12
Fish	0.813 (0 - 1.0)	1.0 (0.25 - 2.0)	0.036^b
Beef and pork	2.0 (1.0 - 2.0)	1.5 (1.0 - 2.0)	0.78
Pizza	1.0 (0.625 - 1.0)	1.0 (0.625 - 1.0)	0.62
Biscuits	7.0 (2.0 - 7.0)	7.0 (2.0 - 7.0)	0.88
Packaged snacks	2.0 (1.0 - 7.0)	2.0 (1.0 - 5.5)	0.68
Cakes	1.0 (1.0 - 3.5)	1.5 (1.0 - 3.5)	0.76
Candy	0.82 (0 - 3.5)	0.25 (0 - 2.0)	0.21
Chocolate	3.5 (2.0 - 7.0)	3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)	0.97
Ice-cream	1.0 (0.63 - 2.0)	1.5 (1.0 - 3.5)	0.12

Table 3. Summary of Results for Diet of the Child up to the Date of Diagnosis of Type 1 Diabetes

Intake

Controls

Type 1 diabetes subjects

P value

Results are in median weekly intake and interquartile range. ^aSoft drinks, fruit juices, sweet tea/ice-tea.^bSignificant results.

Milk

7 (6.375 - 17.5)

17.5 (7.0 - 17.5)

0.13

Sweet beverages^a

3.25 (1.53 - 13.5)

5.25 (1.47 - 17.0)

0.45

Tea

0 (0 - 1.5)

0 (0 - 0.63)

0.98

Fresh fruit

7 (3.5 - 14)

14 (7 - 14)

0.12

Dried fruit

0 (0 - 0)

0.15

Vegetables

3.5 (1.35 - 7)

3.5 (0.9 - 14)

0.545

Potatoes

3.5 (3.5 - 3.5)

0.40

Fried potatoes

1.75 (0.88 - 2.0)

1.8 (0.9 - 1.8)

0.29

Uncooked cereal

7.0 (3.5 - 7.0)

0.65

Rice and pasta

2.75 (2.0 - 3.5)

2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)

1.00

Bread

7.0 (7.0 - 7.0)

7.0 (7.0 - 14.0)

0.01^b

Chicken

3.5 (2.0 - 3.5)

2.0 (2.0 - 3.5)

0.002^b

Fried chicken

1.0 (0 - 1.8)

1.0 (0 - 1.13)

0.12

Fish

0.813 (0 - 1.0)

1.0 (0.25 - 2.0)

0.036^b

Beef and pork

2.0 (1.0 - 2.0)

1.5 (1.0 - 2.0)

0.78

Pizza

1.0 (0.625 - 1.0)

0.62

Biscuits

7.0 (2.0 - 7.0)

0.88

Packaged snacks

2.0 (1.0 - 7.0)

2.0 (1.0 - 5.5)

0.68

Cakes

1.0 (1.0 - 3.5)

1.5 (1.0 - 3.5)

0.76

Candy

0.82 (0 - 3.5)

0.25 (0 - 2.0)

0.21

Chocolate

3.5 (2.0 - 7.0)

3.5 (1.0 - 7.0)

0.97

Ice-cream

1.0 (0.63 - 2.0)

1.5 (1.0 - 3.5)

0.12

**Table 4.** Results of Multiple Logistic Regression Analysis of Childhood Diet Components as Predictors of Type 1 Diabetes
	β	SE	P value	Odds ratio
SE: standard error of the mean.
Bread	0.098	0.041	0.018	1.103
Chicken	-0.492	0.160	0.002	0.611
Fish	0.244	0.200	0.222	1.277

Table 4. Results of Multiple Logistic Regression Analysis of Childhood Diet Components as Predictors of Type 1 Diabetes

P value

Odds ratio

SE: standard error of the mean.

Bread

0.098

0.041

0.018

1.103

Chicken

-0.492

0.160

0.002

0.611

Fish

0.244

0.200

0.222

1.277